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Brain Research and Education Part 10: Criticism!

Lo s works:

new is not only the recent contributions in the referred Findings. It is, rather, already known educational theories, as they were performed before all of the education reformers. The demand for more free work place, for example, when Maria Montessori . The requirement of " easy to the heavy " to go, as well as first approaches to project work and the finding that learning is associated with pleasure and emotionally colored contents are retained better than neutral diving, even at Comenius in the 17th Century.

The difference is the type of reasoning, that is in reference to the scientific foundation, with the stress, the brain researchers their own relevance to education. Moreover, it is with all the findings presented here at very basal learning processes, as explained already in post 3 1 / 2 to allocate more to the privileged learning. The question as , what and why should provide certain content can not be derived from the neuro-scientific findings. This is because they are based largely on the question of what factors are involved, so that knowledge is stored in the memory as effectively as possible. It will therefore represent a very technocratic understanding of education, which, though in times of "Pisa - misery" of the policy could give hope that it is likely to qualify due to the lack of differentiation of the statements: The fact that happy and relaxed students can learn better, can you can not deduce how to create such a learning environment. This is further complicated by the neuro-scientific fact that every student is different brain structures, their own experience brings with it and maybe something else entirely, a "relaxed work" feels.

also the realization that light stress on the motivation of the students is beneficial, great stress should be avoided, however, would ultimately lead to a learning paradigm that is formulated as "g ute teaching somewhere between promote and demand hot "would be. Only with such statements could begin a teacher so very little. It would even give the issue that, as Elsbeth Stern says (see the article "Brain Research and Pedagogical gik) due to the lack of differentiation at the mercy of individual teachers in the selection of the methodology" will open the floodgates "and IF THE ABOVE scientific character, which one would prevail in the school education lead to absurdity.'d

The statement by Manfred Spitzer, that prior to the training of teachers especially the "professional" and less "teaching tricks" should take precedence, lacks any basis in my view, and seems more his personal opinion regarding represent the teachers. The enthusiasm for a subject makes a teacher is not necessarily a good teacher. The reference to the attractiveness of the teacher passes from reality. (see article 9) my opinion, but rather the ability to build a sustainable relationship to his group, and the ability to use different teaching aids to the different "learning styles" enter into, make up a good teacher.

Moreover, the question is whether one is really only because of his enthusiasm in the position of the complicated subject material for the students to "wrap" into understandable words. It would also be clarified how to measure the enthusiasm for a subject with a teacher? Until this is possible, one should rather assume that the student teacher has chosen his subjects because he is very interested in them and from them, and therefore developed its pedagogical and didactic-methodological skills in training.

The theory of operational closure and the state determined nature of the brain also suggests that it is not possible at all to teach targeted, that is, outside an improvement to introduce the teaching, as the responsibility lies with the student. It also seems to state that improving teaching can be reached already by the fact that the students can construct their knowledge actively to develop therefore have plenty of undifferentiated, as leaving open whether it is to be transferred to any school and learning style. It should first be investigated whether these constructivist teaching both in the primary, secondary, and junior high school and in high school is recommended since it requires that the student has mastered certain techniques to learn independently already. This way of working requires a high degree of autonomy, which is by no means expected of each student and can not be learned by each student.

Becker noted this problem in terms of Gruehn that "show studies on the relationship between teaching methods and student performance, d ass" forms of direct instruction (...) A high positive relationship hang with professional learning and having constructivist-oriented report "only in high school classes has powerful beneficial effects, while" repeating ve forms of exercise lead (...) only in secondary schools to larger learning gains

. " (Becker 2007 p.97)

do in the arguments of the brain researchers themselves sometimes some contradictions: that forms the brain of the education and socialization, as it formulates Hüther 185 not speak, but that should guide the teaching and education to the brain, as of the brain researchers postulated. Where then would be the relevance of the education? Brain research would be superfluous to their own findings. There are misunderstandings on the subject of neuroplasticity. I had already indicated that some scientists estimate the general plasticity of the human brain as a very large, others than less. As Nicole Becker shows the reason is that the pro-and contra arguments relating to various studies. For example, believes the part of the scientific community, which is based on animal studies, we have found in them a proof that the learning ability influential in the first three years of life and whose failure would not catch up, while those scientists who are on studies imaging belong, rather the view is that the first three years of life just would not decisive, because the brain would be a life characterized by its Plas ticity . ( see Becker 2006 p. 212F)

Conclusion

I therefore determined to date that the improvement of teaching can not be achieved by having understood how the brain learns. In addition, the statements of neuroscientists to undifferentiated than that from you concrete methods could be derived for use in schools. They also say the science of education is nothing new. It is merely a confirmation of known pedagogical knowledge. Thus, it can already say at this time that brain research is nothing new to contribute to the design of instruction and teaching.

A pure neuroscience research on teaching is the current actual mainly not imagine, simply because of the autonomy of different levels of description (see article 3 1 / 2) because ultimately, the Neuroscience work with the concepts that has set the education of science and psychology already.

remain, Until then I, as a previous conclusion, in the words of cognitive scientist Elsbeth Stern:

"Brain research is not the basic science of learning. You

has been shown that learning takes place in the brain. "

close of this paper I for the next days and weeks from the first issue for me, without, however, be at the end. Other topics have included my thesis yet "Neuro Science Education" and "Ethical implications of neurobiological science education." These two topics I will include in this blog yet (if time remains time) and explain. Otherwise, I thank you for your attention and I hope that you could learn something from my examination of the brain research and take.

Dp Brent Everett & Brent Corrigan

Brain Research and Education Part 9: learning and memory / Key factors for successful learning / The role of interpersonal relationships

How learning was correlated with memory in the brain researchers have already investigated thoroughly and extensively, and were particularly referred to in Part 3 imaging techniques involved, allowing precise localization of various memory systems. In the following points I am referring primarily to the comments of Brand and Marko Witch, after which a known time division of the memory allocation in long-term and short term memory.

The short-term memory

The two neuroscientists have found that information stay in the short-term memory only for a period of about 20-40 seconds. Viewed from its capacity in the short-term memory is also limited. It includes only seven units of information, which may be according to human differences of plus or minus two units of information. A form of short-term memory is the so-called working memory, which is the study of a subject of paramount importance. In the working memory the information items are processed, that is, it finds such a comparison between the currently received information and content already stored in long-term memory, instead. It is therefore an active memory system, which is required whenever new information is learned, but also when information already stored to be reminded.

is the working memory, such as short-term memory is limited by its capacity here, which, by categorizing the information there may be a reduction of the memory units, which means that humans can absorb a lot more. (See Brand / Marko Witch 2006: know what the brain research on learning , in: Journal of

Education Supplement 5 / 06 p. 32)

Long-term memory

Long-term memory, however, is what the amount relates to information that can be saved practically unlimited. The duration of storage is also, at least not in a healthy brain is limited. Marko Witch fire and divide the long-term memory in functionally different memory types, in a. ..

first ... Procedural memory (for motor skills and routines

nehandlungen)

second ... Priminggedächtnis (for an improved perception of

unconsciously perceived content)

third ... Perceptual memory (which allows the detection of objects

th, people and other stimuli, without naming them as

) must

4th ... Semantic memory (the so-called system of knowledge in

what facts are stored)

5th ... Episodic memory (in the events of one's own bio-graphy

be stored that a clear space, time, and have

situation reference)

At the level of the process of information processing is a distinction between the processes of recording, the encoding and consolidation. Jeopardizing attention performance and emotional processing key functions was dar.Es of several tests with the support of established imaging techniques, that the very strength of the emotions it ensures that information is low and strong to be integrated into the different memory systems. The retrieval of a memory content can theoretically occur at any time, and it depends on internal and external signals, which represent key stimuli for the memory can. How good a stimulus to be in a position to stimulate a particular memory, depends on the complexity, the "age" of memory and the frequency of retrieval of these contents, even if people can remember in theory everything they have stored successfully . (see ebd.S. 32ff)

memory and brain

According to Marko Witch and fire is the complexity of memory performance according to a wide network of different brain structures on the storage, the deposition and retrieval of information involved. It's not just the so-called higher and phylogenetically younger regions of the brain, the memory processes guarantee, but also "older" and "lower" opportunity structures, such as the hypothalamus, which play an essential role

. For the school day in particular, is the explicit learning of facts and events, but also of work processes is important. Although this content on memory processes can be assigned, they are not easy to separate from each other everyday: How can the learning of facts to be, for example, embedded in a specific event which is part of our episodic memory. Basically, according to fire and Marko Witch noted that very similar brain regions are involved in the storage and consolidation of episodic and semantic content. These are priority areas of the inner (medial) temporal lobe. In addition, certain nuclei of the forebrain involved in episodic learning and semantic content. Of particular importance is the thalamus, which as the "gateway to consciousness " is called. It processes all the sensory stimuli. In addition, specific nuclei of the thalamus is highly relevant to the entering of information has. The importance of the forebrain was confirmed by studies demonstrating their findings to the participation in learning episodic and semantic content. The frontal lobe, however complex process (learning) tasks. Is content that people learn, emotionally significant, and wins another structure of the medial temporal lobe in importance: the amygdala. The company combines experience with emotional content and is instrumental in the emergence of anxiety, plays but also a major role in the recognition of situations and the general emotional evaluation. As I have indicated above, the organization of the incoming material, a very high demands on our brains because different functions are included. Accordingly, a number of higher and lower brain regions involved in processing. Sun regions of the brain stem and midbrain for example, are concerned with attentional processes, plus regions of the posterior parietal lobe and the limbic system. The integration of different information is processed in part from distant regions and presumably takes place in front of the frontal lobe. (Ibid. p.34-90)

from the above can already guess that play for the successful storage of content, the emotions and the attention an important role. Therefore, these two aspects are processed separately in the following sections. I would add these two factors of successful learning by a factor of motivation.

Important factors for successful learning: attention, emotion and motivation

attention

The attention is of critical importance in the entering of new knowledge. Manfred Spitzer continues in his book of 2002 " Learning: Brain Research and the School of life " intensively with the attention apart and gives it a central place in his remarks. According to Spitzer, it is useful to define what is meant by attention. After Spitzer is called attention "within the meaning of Virgilanz, referring to a quantitatively specifiable to standing of the organism, ranging from alert to comatose .... (See Spitzer 2002 p.141)

Spitzer distinguishes between general Virgilanzerhöhung and selective attention. In the selective attention is turning to specific situations and, associated to the hiding of other issues. According to Spitzer could be said for simplicity, that it is the Virgilanz a temporal process and the selective attention to a spatial process. Through various experiments could be shown that the two processes operate independently. (Ibid.)

Selective attention

After Brain Research "is" the world is not passively into us, but man (or his brain) rather actively filters out what he (it) keeps the countless stimuli, rain down on us every day, for the essentials.

Selective attention refers precisely this ability of people to handle certain things and preferred their conscious awareness thereby enable the first place. It should be noted that the Processing processes of selective attention to a particular time at a specific location are attached. Where: The "higher" processing in the brain takes place, the wider the "lights", which allows us to see more. The selective attention is that is only a limited amount of information available capacity that is "assigned" to new tasks. This capacity is not regarded as static because, the more capacity is allocated a task, this "pull" from other areas of the brain. (Ibid. p. 144), for example, if we focus on a mathematical Task, it is possible the brain, the capacity required to be deducted from that center, which for the "hearing" is responsible. Let us turn our attention to a certain part of our environment, which aroused our senses, it ensures that exactly those areas of the brain are active, which are responsible for processing this excerpt. The resulting increase in activity should be given in principle sufficient to cause a retention of information. Spitzer concludes from this finding that without the devotion of attention to learning stimuli, even with massive " bombing" of the brain, in the brain and would not only keep a few things. The reason was a lack of selective attention, which means that the corresponding brain regions are not active and it is therefore learned nothing.

emotions

According to Gerhard Roth are the involuntary processes of meaning or knowledge construction depends on many factors, of which the Most are mediated by the limbic system. As they have already read the limbic system mediates emotions, feelings and motivations and is In this way, the real controller of the learning success. In each situation, the limbic system asks, figuratively, " What speaks for that listening, learning, practicing, etc. is actually worth? "(Gerhard Roth 2006 Why are learning and teaching so difficult ", in: Herrmann (ed.) 2006 p. 51)

decision this happens mostly in the Compared to unconsciously acting experience gained in the man throughout his life. ( ibid p. 51ff) so are a material factor for humans. But before I continue, should the concept of emotion are first specified, because it can be defined in different ways: According to Spitzer, it is useful to establish the fact that emotions have a strength (high - low), and a valence (good - bad ). They constitute an evaluation system of the human brain dar. Furthermore, they have a cognitive, a high - emotional and physical aspect, which in turn (expression) movement and effects of involuntary, ie Neven autonomic and endocrine system can be distinguished. Particularly well studied in this context, the factor anxiety / stress, at the instance being represented very well the importance of emotions in the learning process can be detected. According to Spitzer anxiety correlated strongly with the success. Fear shown to inhibit the creative process, we found that very frightened indeed causes rapid learning, the cognitive processes but overall it is not conducive. Fear prevented, which will be achieved through learning, namely the linking of content to learners with already known and therefore the application of learning in many different situations. Although fear for humans is very useful because they survive in dangerous situations sure is, but can lead to problems in school. The fear is the amygdala in our brain "in charge". It links emotions with facts, be responsible for storing the hippocampus. If the amygdala is missing, it is known by people who have lost this, so we had no more fear, the hippocampus would be missing, so we could learn no facts. Both are missing, you learn nothing! (See Spitzer 2002, p. 157-165)

According to Spitzer, a number of findings, showing that fear creates a certain cognitive style, which facilitates the rapid run just learned routines and the loose association, so the creative thinking, more difficult. to deal with children and young people, for example, in the school from anxiety have a class work, could lead to major problems, there are parts of memory "issued". Spitzer concludes that a positive mood, both in the classroom and at home for learning is extremely important. Through different studies have shown that the emotional context in which the storage of words is taking place, a modeling effect on subsequent memory performance added. Thus, in a study those words reminiscent best what was learned in a positive context. Moreover, it was shown that different brain areas predict later Remember that, depending on which is stored in the emotional context of words. During the successful Einspeicherns of words in a positive emotional context, showed an activity in the hippocampus and para-hippocampus. In contrast, the involvement of the amygdala was during the successful Einspeicherns in negative emotional contexts. (Ibid. p. 157-165)

behaves similar with stress, which, if it is characteristic may be adversely on the brain and thus affect the memory system. Stress emerged as the fear itself, is likely in the course of evolution as a mechanism that is limited to certain emergency situations "cut", and certain physical reactions. The downside of this mechanism are stress-related long-term consequences that are harmful. As long-term stress leads to various diseases, including chronic fatigue and Stereodibetes. In the short term, increased cognitive performance follows in the brain in the chronic course of stress, neuronal cell death. (Ibid. p. 167ff)

strong and chronic stress do not have only negative Effects on individual neurons, but to the entire memory. Stress hormones have a particularly adverse effect on the neurons of the hippocampus, which as I mention above, for learning and remembering facts of particular importance. The stress hormones decrease in the hippocampus, the uptake of glucose, reducing the available energy array. Therefore, it is difficult for the brain by stress, to remember and learn. In this way, can cause permanent damage to the learning and memory. (Ibid. p. 171F ) Therefore, it is necessary to avoid permanent stress in school mandatory. Short-term stress, however, of how they have heard a also can cause short-term performance, is likely to lead, coupled with positive experiences of success, to improve the learning performance and motivation.

motivation

interest and motivation are expressed according to Roth in the degree of activation of the three subsystems of the brain, the noradrenergic (attention), the -dopaminergic (curiosity, reward), and the cholinergic system (targeted attention) out. These three systems make the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus ready to learn and promote anchoring material of knowledge in long-term memory (cf. Roth 2006 "Why are learning and teaching so difficult?" , in: Herrmann (ed.) 2006 p. 52 - 57)

. According to Manfred Spitzer, a major achievement of our brain is that it continually predicts the events around us. If entering what has predicted the brain, the past is treated as insignificant and not further processed. Occur more events occur that are different from what has predicted the brain as positive, a signal is created, which states that the result of this sequence of impressions or behavior was better than expected and therefore should be learned. The same is also true in a negative context. All of profane words, one might say: The brain learns when it makes a difference (see Spitzer 2002, p. 176F)

is special, what is now happening in the brain that. to successfully solve a task, the brain's own reward system is activated. More precisely: It is the neurotransmitter dopamine is released. This dopamine signal provides an activation of the ventral Striatrums, which in turn leads to a release of opioids in the frontal lobe. This release is in the subjective Perception of a man, a reward effect is and has regarding the information processing a " door open r" - function, which ensures that the event or the behavior sequence, which on the 'better than expected "out feeling has processed, and stored with a higher probability wird.Für learning means that not only learned when positive experiences are made, but also in experience, make a difference to what the man so far has learned. According to Spitzer could be shown that for optimal learning is not the absolute value the reward is important, but its unexpectedness! It will therefore always be learned effectively if the person has an expectation, and the result subjectively "better" than this expectation. For teachers, this means that in order to motivate students, it must be absorbed to stimulate their dopaminergic system, so they confront in the classroom with challenging but at the same time manageable tasks, the results come up with news and surprises.

Another possibility, Manfred Spitzer in the attractiveness of the teacher: Studies have shown that the reward system the student is activated whenever a person is considered friendly face of an attractive or an unattractive face not seen. Spitzer concludes that "hand out" teachers more friendly look, if they have fun in their field. Therefore, teachers should teach only their favorite subjects. (Expressed slightly sarcastic one could conclude that from now on either would have all teachers be attractive or unattractive teachers wherever possible should avoid eye contact with their students.)

Let us at this point so fixed: After Manfred Spitzer and the bulk of this reception are brain researchers, the dopamine system is causally involved in what is called the motivation is involved. However, it is not just that only an attractive face to the dopamine leads, but the learning situation also must be attractive. The reason for this is the already mentioned limbic system. About the attractiveness of the general willingness to learn is controlled, and this in turn is influenced by the above dopaminergic system significantly. As a student now assesses a learning situation depends largely on the previous experience, who has collected it. Thus, children should they be as successful as possible later in the school, have already learned early on that learning is something positive (see Roth 2006, "Why are learning and teaching so difficult?", in: Herrmann (ed.) 2006 p. 52-57).

The role of interpersonal relationships in the learning process

As I have already mentioned, according to some neuroscientists, the brain is a social institution which significantly from its environment is formed. It therefore follows that it is the interpersonal relationships that the learning behavior and shape learning understanding of each man. In no other kind, Gerald Huether, is the way the brain development of the social, emotional and intellectual skills of the adult caregiver dependent, as in humans (see Huether 2006. The importance of social experience for the structural development of the human brain, in: Hermann (ed.) 2006 p. 42f)

accomplished by Joachim Bauer is all what we learn to learn to do in the context of interpersonal relationships. All that this interpersonal relationship experiences bring, particular emotion is stored in the brain. According to Bauer developed in this way from birth to a " ingenious neurobiological talent ", namely the unconscious, which the people put in a position to new situations, then match with earlier prior experience and allow for assessment of experience having to be able to if the relevant prior experience is not remembered consciously. This creates what we call intuition. (Bauer 2002, p. 7 and p. 58-60) basis for the human capacity for empathy and with a high probability of "learning from models " according to Bandura, are the so-called mirror neurons, discovered by Italian neuroscientist Giacomo Rizzolatti and his group. Mirror neurons are capable of what we see in other people memorize so that the person is able, it nachzufühlen, but to imitate because of its well can. The scientists discovered here that the mirror neurons respond only when an observed action was performed by a living conspecifics. Movements of goods to be this way not so understood. (Ibid. p. 12 and p. 84)

What the desire to learn, so Huether, strengthens now is, above all, the ability the parents, as next caregivers to trust the children and the willingness to let them try something new. The greater the fear and uncertainty is, the greater the likelihood that children are not willing to try new and situations that challenge them as to experience stressful and endanger their memory performance ( see Huether 2006th: The importance of social experience for the structural development of the human brain , in: Hermann (ed.) 2006 p. 45)

.

trust must be based Hüther unfold on three levels: as confidence in their skills and potential, as confidence in the solvability of difficult tasks, and when confidence in the meaningfulness of the world and their own ibid Gehaltensein in the world (cf.. . p.46) absence of these forms of trust, then, by Huether, the emergence of complex interconnections at risk in the child's brain. These statements show the importance of early social experience and the caregivers of children for later learning success in school. Children learn in this type of social learning ability, social situations on their own experience intuitive estimate. For example, a child who is, for example, grew up in an anxiety-ridden environment, problems at school with challenges, so that would be a targeted Umlernprozess on the part of teachers set in motion.

Teachers and students need therefore a learning atmosphere in which the teacher against the student brings a confidence in his abilities, and him with collecting some support, personal experience can be.

After Gerhard Roth, neuropsychologists and psychologists found emotion, estimated that at the beginning of each call, the credibility of the partner is. This is done quite unconsciously within about one second on an analysis of the facial expression, tone of voice and posture and because of past experiences gained in the previous man in social situations. Students demonstrating therefore be intuitive, if the teacher is motivated to master his subject and identified himself with what is said. . If this is not the case, the student listens away, and is equally unmotivated (178 see Roth 2006: Why Teaching and learning are so difficult ; in Hermann (ed.) 2006? p. 53)

After Manfred Spitzer follows for training from the teacher: " The subject must be in the spotlight, not

any tricks to" mediation "from" stuff "... and certainly not the Be cess mastery of computer-based Kintop and other colorful deflection krimskrams. A teacher must be able to tell the facts of his times of great stories. "(Spitzer 2002, p. 194)

So, ladies and gentlemen. With these, but very simplistic theories of brain researchers, I would dismiss this complex area for now. The next post in this series I will detail express criticism of the above findings and their relevance to science education.

With the very kindest regards

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Brain Research and Education Part 8: Learning at the cellular level / neuroplasticity

From a neuroscientific perspective learning means first of all nothing but the modification of synaptic transmission strengths. ie, that fall under the title "Learning at the cellular level" in principle, the neural mechanisms that are subsumed under the concept of neuroplasticity. The interesting thing about this situation is that learning is not only the "conductivity" between neurons improves (or worse), but changed through this process in humans. Changes the brain, so also changes the "I" which is created by it. Man is, once he has learned something different. After Spitzer learning in biological systems is not possible otherwise. ( see Spitzer 2002, p. 234)

Below I will in two separate points of both the neuro-plasticity and learning explain at the cellular level, with one implies the other. In particular, the second point I will use it to deepen the processes present.

neuroplasticity

(neuro-) is plasticity, including with respect to the subject of this work, perhaps the most important organizational principles of the brain. Neuroplasticity is defined by the Encyclopedia of neuroscience as ...

... " the variability of neural connections in the nervous system. The concept of neural plasticity is thus the recognition that the newly- neural connections are not fixed and invariable, but because of certain functional activity (eg learning) or they have lost of nerve cells or axons are subject to change "

( Joseph P. Hammer Head 2000, in: Encyclopedia of Neuroscience Vol 2 2000 p.85).

Joseph P. Hammer head still distinguishes between functional and structural plasticity. The functional plasticity in particular the change in the efficiency of synaptic transmissibility is meant, without leading to a change in the anatomical structure content. For example, perform an action potential in the präsynaptsichen termination of a neuron to an increased transmitter release, resulting in increased activation of postsynaptic a result. The structural plasticity differs from the functional is that it comes to anatomically tangible changes in the neural network. The anatomical changes, for example, relates to the molecular features of pre-and post-synapses, but also the structure the dendrites and may be associated with the formation of new synapses or new axons. All the processes of learning are based according to the neuroscientists on this plasticity and thus adaptability of the nervous system.

Menno Baumann points out however that a large disagreement about how large the scale really is, which can take these processes. On the one hand, he describes stood the skeptics, who both hold the potential of plasticity is very limited and the view of neural reorganization related to age or duration is limited. On the other side are those who the capabilities of the brain to reorganize as a very large estimate. Though agreement is the fact that the (neuro) plasticity is, and that in the early childhood subject to terms more favorable than in adults. ( see Baumann 2007 p. 91) This refutes the idea that " what not teach an old dog learn never more would "as an old dog learn faster, but adults in principle the Ability to neuroplasticity, have combined with the opportunity to build on previous learning experiences.

learning at the cellular level: Second Messengers, Langzeitpotenzie tion and representations

At the cellular level means learning that the communication, ie, the synaptic connections between nerve cells of specific circuits strengthened is. The basis of such changes is the formation of new receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, so that incoming neurotransmitters have more opportunities to transmit their signals to the downstream neuron. But it's the other way around too well, so a targeted reduction other receptors, for example, produce such, the inhibitory signals that also lead to a strengthening of synaptic connection between two nerve cells. ( see fire / Marko Witch 2006 : What does brain research on learning , in: Journal of Education Supplement 5 / 06 p. 28)

This nerve cells are stimulated to produce more targeted at specific receptors, there is needed neurotransmitters from the region of dendrites to the cell body reach, in order to influence the protein synthesis. Such neurotransmitters but must be coupled directly to the "success" of a synaptic connection, so only very efficient synapses between neurons are strengthened. For this purpose, there is an intracellular mechanism based on the so-called "Second - Messengers" is based. (ibid.)

The object of the second - Messengers is the information on the activation of a receptor molecule on the effect of . determine You can diffuse to the nucleus and thus inform the "nerve center" of the nerve cell through synaptic activity. This allows the synthesis of new receptors are introduced and thus strengthened the synaptic connection between neurons. The formation of second - Messengers is preceded by the so-called long-term potentiation. This refers to that because a high-frequency and long-lasting activation of nerve cells on the postsynaptic side of the processes that govern the formation of second - lead Messengers, to be strengthened. (vgl.ebd.)

The theory is based on long-term potentiation in the research of neuroscientist Donald Olding Hebb, who formulated a learning rule that states that whenever two connected neurons simultaneously are active, the connection between them becomes stronger. These processes leave a permanent mark caused by irritant effects from the outside. They selectively enhance the connections in the human brain and under depending on how people use it. These connections are reinforced for what did the man they "represent" what you have learned how the brain researchers say. Manfred Spitzer describes this as follows:

" The remaining traces of the fleeting impressions of out there in our ha ben a name: Man speaks of representations of the outside world. The se representations emerge and change, and is called GE precisely these processes as learning. Brains and their components, the neurons are specialized to form representations in relation to their environment and change it. Neurons represent certain aspects of the environment ... A neuron can can stand for something ... like a word with ... for something : "and added that :" We hold. It is said that the neuron represents something when it is activated, is this something processed by the brain. "

( Spitzer 2002, p. 12f)

Therefore, neurons, or are a composite of neurons in activities for the places we have seen and other things we have learned. It decides the brain, specifically the limbic system, which is important and what is not, as I shall hereafter seen. Let us therefore together: The brain is plastic, that it says has the ability to constantly adapt to the environment. Where: things you do often reinforce the connections between the neurons in the brain, which represent the same things done. The more often these compounds are used, the more stable they are and the quicker the relevant knowledge is available. Connections that are not used to be melted down or die.

It can be concluded from an educational point of view well-known: exercise makes perfect . In addition can conclude that the brain is always learning and in every situation. Moreover, the man determined to some extent even of his brain structure by using it in a certain way and he learns from birth to use it in a certain way. This constitutes a circular process by the possibilities that the man pre-defined by his brain, but he on the way in which uses opens up new possibilities and they only possible. On introducing this idea further, can be viewed as talents and interests of students in a new light. Talents could therefore not be congenital, but due to the fact that a person has engaged in more for various reasons with certain things. In principle, this also says that a child, provided it with a "healthy" brain in the world comes to learn almost everything, even when differences in brain structure at birth were, as one might train different skills specifically.

neurons learn in combination - How rules and form repraesentatio NEN - the example of language

reacts at the birth of infant still in all the 70 phonemes, there is. Was six months but, as can be proven, he makes a distinction between the sounds he hears every day in his native language and the sounds, which he does not hear. ( see Spitzer 2002, p. 65)

is The interesting thing is that the computer-simulated neural networks (with appropriate training) in learning the language just behave like children: you become acquainted with the exceptions, then the rules and they will first make an error when they over-regulate , eg apply the learned past tense of verbs and the objects. At the end of the process can apply both children and the neural network, the exceptions and the rule. So the mere fact that synaptic strengths are changed in network as a function of the learning experience it come about that the network dominates a rule. This is done by the often heard the regularities are extracted. It strengthen the neural connections that stand for words and grammatical rules, which are often heard. It should be noted that at no time a child, or the computer simulation of the network has a rule explicitly learned. According to Spitzer, it is not sen these rules, except as a description of the what has been learned. Brains are therefore to Spitzer as " Regelextrakti production machines to". The brain is functionally designed so that it will not learn general rules by this he didactical preparation for "consumption" enough. It extracts from the many examples that are perceived, the rule-like. ( ibid. p. 74 et seq)

general, the human brain can and insights from the outside world has two ways to represent: first, it can classify objects into relevant categories, on the other hand, as explained above, made general representations. The ability to classify objects into categories would thus be the "classical timpani", ie learning by heart in school, in accordance with the second option is more like a " meaningful " learning. For this type of learning found in the frontal cortex specialized neurons. In animal studies with primates, this hypothesis could be empirically with respect to visual perception. The research revealed that the perceived stimuli are first in the visual cortex of the occiput and then processed along a whole set of visual areas of the cerebral cortex. These range in turn forward to the lower temporal lobe. There are not now represented more corners and edges, colors, or movements, but The general object properties. ( ibid. p. 90)

concludes Spitzer for the (school) education that learning individual facts or events or memorizing For example, . superfluous mathematical formulas, if not inconvenient, since it will give the school the children skills they can apply to different situations or types of tasks. Facts that are only learned by heart "float", thus in a "vacuum" of the brain, and could not other types of tasks be applied. These, but some exceptions are made: For example, places and important events of personal life, ie content that is just not generally but specifically excluded from this type of learning. This fall, but not in the classroom.

So, ladies and gentlemen. For today it was again. In the next post, I dedicate myself to the theme "Learning and memory from a neuroscience perspective" and watch me at times, especially the factors affecting the success of learning from a neuroscience perspective interesting.

As always, I thank you very much for your attention and have a nice evening.